The Impact of Illegal Immigration on the United States

Immigration is one of the hot topics in today’s society: legal and illegal. According to, Philip E. Wolgin, in his article, â€Å"Immigration Polling Roundup: Americans of All Political Stripes Want Congress to Pass Immigration Reform†, there are 11.7 million unauthorized immigrants living in America today. From 1990 – 2007, immigration increased from 3.5 million to 12.2 million. Since 2007, immigration has decreased and fluctuated from 12.2 million illegal immigrants to 11.7 million illegal immigrants. In the article, â€Å"Splitting the Difference on Illegal Immigration†, Peter Skerry states that, included in the eleven million illegal immigrants, there are more than one million children under the age of eighteen. He also said that the illegal immigrants make up roughly four percent of our nation’s population, five percent of the work force, and twenty-eight percent of the foreign born residents.There are a lot of negative connotations that most p eople connect with illegal immigration. Some people will say that illegal immigrants take away from the economy by using government services and not paying any taxes, but they also tend to say that a lot of illegal immigrants will take the lower paying jobs that most Americans do not want. These two reasons are both negative and positive effects of legal and illegal immigration. Likewise, when people think about immigration they usually think about just the Mexicans that come over from Mexico, since Mexico is just right next door, butShow MoreRelatedIllegal Immigration Has A Positive Impact On The United States2114 Words   |  9 Pages2014 (White House, 5). Although illegal immigration is often considered negative, recent studies and social trends suggest illegal immigration has had a more positive impact on the United States through observing the cases of modern day life. The number of immigrants to the US increased at the end of twentieth century. One immigration study explains: According to the 1990 census, roughly one in twelve residents of the United States were born abroad. In some states, such as California, Florida, andRead MoreIllegal Immigrants Are Good For The Economy Of The United States1250 Words   |  5 Pageshistory of independent United States, the country has attracted immigrants from different parts of the world. Illegal immigrants form the larger proportion of the immigrants into the United States. Policy analysts, government officials, as well as scholars have sought to ascertain the political, social, and economic impacts of the illegal immigrants (Hanson 11). Particularly, there has been raging debate regarding the economic impact of illegal immigration to the United States of America. It has becomeRead MoreImmigration And The United States986 Words   |  4 PagesImmigration in the United States continues to increase rapidly year by year. According to an analysis of monthly Census Bureau data by the Center for Immigration Studies, t he immigration population in the United States, both legal and illegal, hit a record of 42.1 million in the second quarter of this year, an increase of 1.7 million since the same quarter of 2014 (CIS.org). Clearly, Immigrants make up a large part of the population in the United States, and for most immigrants, migrating to theRead MoreNeighbor Relations:. An Immigration Problem Between The1215 Words   |  5 Pages Neighbor Relations: An Immigration Problem between the United States and Mexico Alberto Beltran Sociology 121 November 20, 2013 Outline I. Introduction II. Mass Immigration from Mexico: 1910 to1930 III. Bracero Program IIII. Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 V. Impact of Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 VI. Illegal Immigration problem VII. Conclusion I. Introduction The United States has always been considered a countryRead MoreIllegal Immigration1709 Words   |  7 PagesIllegal Immigration: The Undocumented Issue In this paper I will discuss one of the biggest issues in the United States: Illegal immigrants. Some may say that illegal immigration has a positive impact on the United States’ economy, and some think that these undocumented immigrants affect jobs and wages of people that are living in this country. I think that illegal immigrants harm the United States’ economy through their use of our country’s social services such as health care, education andRead MoreIllegal Immigration Is The Entry Of Non Us909 Words   |  4 Pages â€Å"Illegal immigration is the entry of non-U.S. citizens into the United States without their having applied for entry at one of the many border crossings† (Illegal Immigration 9). There are numerous ways that illegal immigrants travel into the United States. The most common forms of entry are through Canada and Mexico. However, illegal immigration did not used to exist. In fact, immigration without applying to enter into the count ry was allowed in the United States at the beginning of 1655. OverRead MoreCause/Effect of immigration reform971 Words   |  4 Pagesto mind when you think of immigration? What is the United States’ current Immigration Policy? Would you even think that it is considered to be one of the most debatable topics today? Nowadays, many people decide to immigrate to have a better life for themselves and their families. Immigration reform, as it has been called, had been tried during the past years by our very own Congress. Obviously, administrations efforts failed because, currently, illegal immigration is still a platform. Why wouldRead MoreMedia Reaction to Immigration1471 Words   |  6 PagesMedia Reaction to Immigration Name Course Date Submitted Media Reaction to Immigration: The issue of illegal immigration is one of the hotly debated topics in almost every facet of society, especially among political leaders. This topic has also received huge media attention and reaction in the recent past including an article written by William Finnegan and published by The New Yorker. The article focuses on addressing the issue of borderlines and is based on the move by 17 Congress membersRead MoreImmigration On The United States1302 Words   |  6 PagesImmigration Rights in the U.S. Immigration has occurred in the U.S. for for many years. Some say it’s the foundation of our country. America is the country where people leave their own country to live. People would leave due to mistreatment, hunger issues or job opportunities. America is known for starting over or accomplishing dreams, so immigrants travel over to follow those dreams. People emigrate from one country to another for a variety of complex reasons. Some are forced to move, due to conflictRead MorePersuasive Essay On Illegal Immigration1459 Words   |  6 PagesIndependence in 1776. The United States of America has had immigrants from every nationality in the world seeking a better life or to pursue economic opportunities that may not be available in their native home. The majority of immigrants in the late nineteenth century arrived in the country on boats. Denial of entry were for the individuals whom are criminals, anarchists, or carriers of disease. Immigrants has the ability to become a legal resident, or a citizen of the United States. However, the process

Philosophical And Ideological Perspectives In Education...

Philosophical And Ideological Perspectives In Education Introduction The Second Edition of Philosophical and Ideological Perspectives in Education continue to examine the major schools of philosophy of education through the systems approach. It also considers the relationship of education to major ideologies such as Liberalism, Conservativism, and Marxism. It analyzes the impact of philosophy and ideology on educational theory and practice by examining such theories as Essentialism, Perennialism, Progressivism, and Social Reconstructionism. Although concentrating on the philosophy of education, it introduces educational ideas. First, it examines the major philosophical systems and ideologies that have shaped educational thought and†¦show more content†¦In addition to the historical overviews, the philosophical roots of each of the ideologies are explored. In both of the overviews of philosophy and ideology, particular attention is given to the educational implications of each of these perspectives. Finally, the book concludes with descriptions of specific theories of education, including essentialism, perennialism, progressivism, social reconstruction, and critical theory. Again, these theories are traced back to their philosophical and ideological roots. In addition, current manifestations of each of the educational theories are offered. The book is especially valuable for scholars of education. It is also useful for anyone who wants a concise overview and comparison of different approaches to philosophy and political ideology. (http://www.world literature.com/Philosophical_and_Ideological_Perspectives_on_Education_2nd_Edition_020526106X.html) The Rise of Naturalism Naturalism has infected higher education. Horace Mann was called the father of the American public school and John Dewey the father of American progressive education. Dewey was an evolutionary pantheistic humanist, (Morris 1983 p. 223) and helped steer education away from God as nat uralism spread downward into public schools. Asa Gray, a Harvard professor of botany, encouraged Darwin in a series of letters during its writing (Taylor p.131). In 1860, he became Darwins promoter, ambassador and apostle in theShow MoreRelatedQualities Of A True Leader1161 Words   |  5 Pagesconcept of leadership has been widely discussed by academics worldwide and comprehensively defined in dictionaries and encyclopedias with multiple definitions and contexts. Scholars may study leadership from various perspectives, from a managerial standpoint, an in-depth philosophical analysis of the concept and even from the psychological aspect of the discipline. 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While generally providing a critique of social relations, much of feminist theory also focuses on analyzing gender

Innovation at 3m Corporation-Free-Samples-Myassignmenthelp.com

Questions: 1.How has 3M innovation process evolved since the foundation of the company? Why does 3M need to regain its historic closeness to the customer? 2.How does the lead user research process differ from and compliment other traditional research methods? 3.Has the medical surgical team applied the led user research process successfully? 4.What should the medical surgical lead user team recommend to Dunlop; the three new products or a new business strategy? What are the risks? Answers: Innovation at 3M Corporation 1.Initially, the 3M investors did not directly share in product royalties and an innate love for discovery was expected to spur on innovation. In the 1920s, for example, a technician named Richard Drew came up with the idea that later led to the development of masking tape in response to paint peeling away when removing glued newspaper strips used in masking material(Thompke Nimgade, 2002). He also went on to invent Scotch brand cellophane that helped the company stay afloat during the depression. This he did when he was expected to be making improvements on an existing product, and his success with this helped birth the 3M aphorism it is better to seek forgiveness than to ask for permission. Innovation was encouraged in ways like awards for innovation and grants to technicians to fund innovative projects. The staff was allowed to use 15% of their time in exploration of new ideas and responsibilities, an idea, which birthed things like post-it notes, by inventor Art Fry. Heavy empha sis was placed on research and development, and senior technically inclined employees were allowed to move on from the company without having to go through management. Internal showcases were held to exchange ideas and discoveries across departments, a factor that helped the company retain most of its employees. William Coyne, head of research and development, felt that traditional strategic planning had little room for innovation(Thompke Nimgade, 2002). A member of the medical-surgical marketing research admitted that even though they led in their niche with the surgical drapes, which had consistent sales, the numbers were stagnating and if a new product were not created then the division would have to close down. Initially, part of innovation was dependent on marketing research, which did not seem effective considering the disadvantages that normal customers had no innovative ideas. Product developers and marketers were responsible for any innovative ideas or products when customer visits which used to be done by the company were stopped. Marketers thought of a new product and commercialized it without any input from consumers, leading to many 3M inventions laying in laboratories and awaiting markets. Closeness to the market was at the core of 3M before the shortcomings of market research were found out, and it did lead to some innovations and inventions when technicians went to see consumers, such as physicians, make use of the product. Lead user research was adopted, as a means to make a breakthrough product by finding new needs not thought of before. This would involve users, but specific ones who had expertise in an area related to the product, who would have used the product and noticed shortcomings. Rebuilding a relationship with the customers would help technicians to have an idea on what to make improvements on, instead of just making new products with no utility and which the market will not be willing to buy. 2.Market research reports provided abundant data but limited information to form the concept for a breakthrough project. Lead user research was proposed when it was apparent that traditional marketing research was not effective and would not help the division to create a new successful product. While the initial approach took data from sales representatives with contact to physicians and nurses, focus groups with nurses from scattered locations, customer evaluations of current products, site visits by scientists and technologists to observe physicians at work and note foreseeable needs and data on risk factors(Thompke Nimgade, 2002). This was disadvantageous as market researchers created too many interfaces with the customer and risk factors could be gotten from any medical textbook. Focus groups gave no clue on market needs years down the line. The premise of lead user research shows that some customers experience the need earlier before considering themselves as an asset to innova tion. This premise drew from the example of whiteout being invented by a secretary and Gatorade being created with input from athletes. It created a need for personnel to have a great deal of knowledge about infections, the possibility of the patients own body being a source of infection, creating a need for good surgical drapes. Extensive research was done by the team members for them to have initial information before they identified the problems their target market faced. In the traditional marketing method, the researchers did not set out while already armed with information, and they therefore did not know what questions to ask and what to watch for. Experts were contacted to give an opinion on improvements to be made to breakthrough products such as how it would adhere to the human body. The team-generated features that would best meet customer needs. The developing world in Asia and South America was identified as a major potential market since infectious diseases were still threats and it was seen that a study of these areas could provide new growth ideas(Thompke Nimgade, 2002). The Medical surgical Markets division sent product developers rather than marketers to visit potential customers in these developing countries to see how surgeons dealt with infections under the extreme conditions that some of them were forced to work under. This new approach emphasized collecting qualitative data, which would bring up new concepts and questions to be answered in contrast with the previous approach with collected quantitative data, which could be analyzed in a more organized manner. The right questions were probed. This process was meant to come up with opportunities for product development, which could not be possibly done by traditional means. Ideally, this is meant to stem from knowledge of emerging consumer needs and better concepts on existing products and services due to reliable data and faster innovation. Major trends related to consumer needs are studied and matched with possible corresponding products, with an emphasis on ideal attributes and features that best meet these needs. Experts among the lead users are interviewed for technical knowledge about concept generation. The managers were involved in implementation of concepts and confirmed the correspondence of the concepts with business interests. 3.The medical surgical team has managed to successfully apply the Lead User Research process. This is because this approach lays more emphasis on the consumers who are the lead users of the companys products. In the team selected to help in discussions were a surgeon, a veterinary surgeon, a makeup artist who though he seemed unorthodox had a wealth of knowledge on the application of substances to skin, researchers, and marketers. Surgeons both in developed countries and in the developing world were observed at work and the challenges they face observed. It was noted that developing countries, even though they had some few well-equipped world class hospitals, has a lot of below par medical facilities in which the surgeons worked under very hard conditions and which could not possibly afford the surgical drapes at the price being offered by the company. Therefore, for this reason it was set out to develop cheaper products for this market as a way of also expanding the companys reach. All the steps followed by the team were geared towards not only finding the users needs but also coming up with concepts that would help in the satisfaction of these needs. Information about the divisions major focus in term of products, which was infections which were related to the process of and conditions surrounding the surgery rather than the illness itself, was collected in an intense period of research through medical journals and other sources. After a period of intense research, the team was able to find out that at least 30% of the infections were from the skin of the patient, and this is the information that was most focused on during seminars and meetings. The team had meetings to make sense of the information they had gathered and made calls to users who might have experienced these infections, including the MASH unit whose operations needed portable, flexible, and affordable products but were more focused on issues like transportation and therefore did not form the des ired lead users. The fact that the team communicated with such a wide variety of possible lead users can suggest that the ones they managed to keep were going to air genuine concerns, which would be important in concept generation. It is my opinion that the team was successful in applying the lead user research process because when they contacted the lead users they ascertained their interest in accessing products, which would solve the problems that the division aimed to solve too. They had meetings to think through needs and how to not only make them quality but convenient, as was proposed by the veterinary surgeon who proposed the surgical drape which only allowed access to areas of the patients being operated on, and the input of the makeup artist on different materials to help the drapes adhere to skin. They came up with concepts and sufficient explanations for them and as a bonus even had a concept for a product out of the normal range that the division usually delved in and more than they set out to do. They also intended to do research on detection of infections before they happened, and even though this would require a new business strategy, it can also show their own confidence in the success of their research process and their concepts. The team managed to come up with ideas for new products to solve this problem, complete with surgical drapes made of more affordable materials to reduce the cost and enable affordability by most consumers in developing countries. The surgical drapes also had fastening devices and adhesive to stick it to the body, were made in a size to fit all patients, and allowed focus on the specific body part being operated on. They also had the concept for a skin doctor, a device that would apply layers of an antibacterial fluid to the skin surrounding the operating point, with a suggestion for an accompanying vacuum device to remove any pre-existing moisture on the skin before the layers are applied. The third product they came up with was outside the scope of what the company had attempted before, and was an antibacterial armor line, which was meant to protect tubes and catheters leading inside the body from microbial infection 4.Dunlop as an executive believed in the traditional marketing research method that was used to obtain data with numbers that were much easier to analyze. Nevertheless, considering the fact that the Medical-surgical department had lasted decades with only one successful product showed that customers could not be trusted to recognize their own needs and had no ideas on improvements that needed to be made. Even though they were the leaders in the particular niche of surgical drapes, the sales were stagnating which meant that there was a market that had yet to be tapped or that the product did not cater to specific needs that the consumers had. The Lead User Research team even in initial stages had a hard time convincing him of the feasibility of the project for which he showed open disapproval and termed a tax to the current operating income(Thompke Nimgade, 2002). For this reason, it would be better to sell the idea of a new business strategy to him. The business strategy of 3M is more oriented towards making new products, which will generate about 30% of the revenue. An executive also once said that they would produce anything that makes money. Increasing profits is a major goal of the company, and there is a possibility that while the new products are being introduced into the market, they will not perform as well as expected in their novelty and before consumers are convinced of their usefulness. The team can recommend a new business strategy based on competitiveness, this meaning that there should be an emphasis on differentiating products with any other that a competitor may produce, creating products which are affordable by different classes of customers, and always seeking to diversify on products and services. This business strategy encompasses all the new products developed in that they are all either improvements on current products of the division and include a new product catered toward a different direction. The new products were an economy line whose greatest emphasis was on cost, a skin doctor line, and an antimicrobial armor line. The first two were seen as introduction to already existing product lines, while the last was a foray into new activities, which was expected to open doors to new activities(Thompke Nimgade, 2002). By describing a business strategy, that allows more freedom for continuous research and continuous contact with consumers, the new products could be seen as a pilot proof of the strategy. The whole research process should be defined by its goals to boost global presence of the division and 3M at large with the resultant creation of new double-digit growth for the division. The lead user research process had when it started a goal to create new concepts and ideas but as was admitted by members of the team, it was not enough to have new products with an old business strategy. It would defeat the final purpose of the team for the strategy to be rejected. The risk is that the whole Medical-Surgical division could be shut down if it seems that they cannot come up with any innovative ideas to keep it afloat. The research to detect microbes before they cause infection, which could be a billion dollar industry in its own right, had a possibility of not being approved Reference Thompke, S. Nimgade, A., 2002. Innovation at 3M Corporation (A). Havard Business School Publishing, 9-699-012 Rev, July 23, pp.1-23

Globalisation and Standardisation of Products

Questions: 1. Discuss and compare the success (or lack of success) of their strategy. 2. Do you agree or disagree with the thesis statement above. Why? Why not? Answers: Nowadays, Coca-Cola is considered as one of the most successful brands all over the world. The company has gained pace and growth while expanded itself in a quite rapid manner and thereby becoming the largest beverage manufacturing company in the world. Coca Cola company has increased its global market share extensively and presently it operates in more than 200 countries accompanies by more than 84000 suppliers (Banutu-Gomez 2012). During the present period most of the revenue of the company is generated from outside the United States. In order to achieve this extensive development in business, Coca Cola Company had adopted the strategy of globalization. The process of globalization started during the early stages of 1900. Primarily the bottling plants of the company were set up in Panama and Cuba as the United States military were spread in these regions, which gave rise to an increase in the demand for Coca Cola. These plants became very successful as these helped to reduce the cost associated with delivery and shipping process (Arzaba 2013). After the success of these plants, Coca Cola opened its next bottling plants in Hawaii, Puerto Rico and Philippines. During the year 1926, the company had set up a centre for foreign relationships and manufacturing units all over the world in order to support its present global operations. According to Arzaba (2013), the Coca Cola Company continued on its path of producing in a mass and expansion in the upcoming decades. The company had established local branches accompanied by local partnerships for the effective and efficient production and distribution of the renowned Coca Cola products all over the world. In order to examine the globalization activity of the Coca Cola Company the three major strategies that have been adopted by the company must be discussed. These three strategies are namely global marketing, differentiation of products and use of advanced technologies (Saylor.org 2016). The marketing strategies adopted by Coca Cola have helped the company to globalize successfully. The popular slogans added with the rhythmic songs compelled the consumers to remember the particular brand. Moreover, added with the advertising initiatives Coca Cola became the first and foremost commercial sponsor of the Olympic Games (Toma 2012). Another, key strategy is product differentiation. The company has effectively differentiated its products for meeting the needs of customers from different classes. Such as in order to meet the needs of young customers the company has manufactured flavored coke. On the other hand, for the health concerned population the company produces diet coke, vitamin water along with Odwalla products (Toma 2012). For building up a proper understanding about the market segments, lifestyle, age and buying behavior of the population, Coca Cola has invested a significantly high amount of money. Finally, technology is the last strategy that the company used for the successful globalization. The use of advanced technologies has enabled the company to reduce the cost of transportation and it became able to transport larger amount of products more easily and quickly by using cargo ships, jet aircrafts etc. In addition to these, advancement in technologies became a driving force that enabled easy availability of information. Reference List: Arzaba, A., 2013. Coca-Cola: Globalization in the Modern Mayan World. Banutu-Gomez, M.B., 2012. Coca-Cola: International business strategy for globalization. The Business Management Review, 3(1), p.155. Saylor.org. (2016). Saylor Academy. Toma, G., 2012. THE CULTURAL DIMENSION OF GLOBALIZATION. Strategic Impact, 42(1).

Gender and Flag Question free essay sample

Feminists argue that gender matters because _____. Select one: a. it helps us bring some order to a chaotic world b. it structures social relations between people c. it emphasizes natural differences that exist between men and women d. there are roles for which men are each better suited and other roles for which women are better suited Question 2 Not yet answered Marked out of 3. We will write a custom essay sample on Gender and Flag Question or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page 00 Flag question Question text Your introductory sociology professor believes that gender roles serve a purpose in society to fulfill certain functions. What type of theoretical background is your professor espousing? Select one: a. conflict b. postmodern c. structuration d. structural functionalism Question 3 Not yet answered Marked out of 3. 00 Flag question Question text Which of the following theories is associated with the idea that gender is a process—a product of our everyday social interactions? Select one: a. psychoanalytic theory b. conflict theory c. microinteractionist theory d. postmodern theory Question 4 Not yet answered Marked out of 3. 00 Flag question Question text How might a sociologist describe the difference between homosexuality and homosexual behavior? Select one: a. Homosexuality is a fixed social identity that is determined at birth, and homosexual behavior is the outward manifestation of that identity. b. Homosexuality is a lifestyle choice, whereas homosexual behavior is a choice about how to act in a particular moment and context. c. Homosexuality implies having a certain social identity, whereas homosexual behavior is a choice about a particular activity at a particular time. d. Homosexuality implies obtaining a social identity through repeated homosexual behavior Question 5 Not yet answered Marked out of 3. 00 Flag question Question text While policies that overtly discriminate against women have mostly been driven from the workplace, there still exist covert barriers that are often referred to as _____. Select one: a. the mommy track b. the glass ceiling c. hegemonic masculinity d. the glass escalator Question 6 Not yet answered Marked out of 3. 00 Flag question Question text _____ is a nearly universal system involving the subordination of femininity to masculinity. Select one: a. Patriarchy b. Sexism c. Matriarchy d. Hegemonic masculinity Question 7 Not yet answered Marked out of 3. 00 Flag question Question text Gender studies can be said to focus on the relationship between _____. Select one: a. nature and nurture b. sex and sexuality c. men and women d. sexual preference and social environment Question 8 Not yet answered Marked out of 3. 00 Flag question Question text Which of the following statements offers an essentialist explanation for gender differences? Select one: a. Women find themselves in lower paying jobs with fewer opportunities for advancement because such jobs make it easier for them to balance work and family. b. Women take on more responsibility for domestic tasks because men still think of such things as women’s work. c. There are far fewer women professors in the hard sciences because women are tracked toward the humanities and social sciences. d. Women are overrepresented in professions such as nursing, teaching, and social work because they are inherently more nurturing and caring than men. Question 9 Not yet answered Marked out of 3. 00 Flag question Question text Women working in male-dominated professions often find that there are _____ opportunities for advancement, and men working in female-dominated professions often advance _____ their female colleagues. Select one: a. limited; more slowly than b. limited; as quickly as c. ample; as quickly as . limited; more quickly than Question 10 Not yet answered Marked out of 3. 00 Flag question Question text The interview with Paula England highlights the changing gender dynamics of relationships for college students. In what way have the female college students that Dr. England describes lost a level of equality with male college students? Select one : a. Women have more limited choices in dating partners. b. Women encounter a lack of reciprocal sexual pleasure. c. Women encounter reduced communication about relationships from men. d. Women are burdened with a larger share of the â€Å"emotional work† required to keep a relationship function.

Japanese Funerals essays

Japanese Funerals essays In Japan, funeral procedures adhere strictly to traditional beliefs and customs, unlike Japanese weddings, which have been strongly affected over the years by Western influence. The beliefs and etiquette surrounding the funerary procedure is a splicing of Shinto, Buddhist, and Confucian beliefs. Most Japanese consider themselves as Shinto, Buddhist, or Shinto-Buddhist, yet it is important to the Japanese that the funeral ceremony is approached in the Buddhist practice. The traditional notions of death in Japan are also involved in the funeral process. Traditional Japanese beliefs on death and funeral ceremony: The Japanese people understand that the natural process of death is the final event of life, due to their relationship as a race with Buddhist and Shinto beliefs. According to Kimura, Zen Buddhist phrases such as accept death as it is and Life-death as one phenomenon are key motifs integrated into Japanese culture (1996, 374). True to Buddhist precepts, the Japanese also believe in re-incarnation, or the coming of a next life after one has ended. A Japanese funeral thus marks the end of a human life on earth. Traditionally, the Japanese funeral is a very important ritual practice in Japanese society. The Japanese believe that the spirits of the dead are revived during a funeral. The ceremony itself thus does not focus on the bereavement of the surviving friends and family, but on the spiritual journey of the deceased person. Keeping the Japanese funeral tradition is important to the Japanese, who believe that retaining funerary custom shows respect for the deceased and their ancestors. The Japanese believe that their ancestors are always with them, watching, protecting, and guiding them, so respect for their dead through ritual is important. Funeral ceremony, and associated customs: In the hour after a person has died, the lips of the deceased are moistened, and the body is washed a...

Personal Investment in the UK Is It Science or Matter of Good Fortune Essay

Personal Investment in the UK Is It Science or Matter of Good Fortune - Essay Example In United Kingdom people tend to invest or conduct their personal savings through the use of different tools like investing in mortgage funds, investing on pension or other insurance related funds, depositing money in banks or in securities issued by different financial institutions. Further people also tend to invest their money in many asset related or commercial funds apart from investing in agricultural and national savings deposits. The major part of the personal savings owes to funds related to pension and insurance other than mortgage or housing properties (Banks and Blundell, 1994, p.67). Types of Personal Investment in United Kingdom and Popularity of UseIn United Kingdom the aspect of personal savings and investment gains attention in regards to categories like pension funds and other insurance related sectors. However other than the pension and insurance related funds the personal investment activities of the people also centre on deposits made in banks. Investment is agai n made by the people in funds created for the housing societies. Moreover other than the listed areas the people also tend to invest largely in sectors such as shares and dividend mainly equity based issued by registered companies operating in United Kingdom. In other types of personal investment practices the people also tend to invest largely in different types of asset funds bearing interest gains and in other savings fund issued by the national government.

Equity law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Equity law - Essay Example Practically, Hudson (2009) avers that modern equity is limited by both procedural and substantive rules, with legal writers tending to focus on prevailing technicalities. From these are drawn the twelve ‘vague’ ethical statements, referred to as the maxims of equity. The ethical statements further guide in the application of equity according to civil law (Hudson, 2009:24). The concept elicits criticisms that are traceable to historical conceptualization, during its development. This is mainly based upon its lack of fixed rules, further augmented by the fact that it later on lost a majority of its flexibility. The law on perfectly constituted trusts and perfect gifts has been ‘tolerably clear’ since 1862 (Halliwell, 2003:192). This is traceable to the authoritative statement by Turner during the Milroy v Lord case (4 De G.F. & J. 264; 45 E.R. 1185; [1861-1973] All E.R. Rep. 783). Use of the term ‘tolerably clear’ is necessitated by the presence of exceptions, which were previously articulated by courts previously. Influential in this regard is interpretation of the Privy Council’s advice, during the Court of Appeal’s hearing of the Pennington v *Conv. 193 Waine case (Halliwell, 2003:192). Subsequent interpretation of the court’s ruling was viewed as providing courts of equity the unfettered discretion, concerning whether voluntary trusts or gifts should take effect. This is with regard to the role of ‘un-conscionability in Equity’, which requires principled reasoning. Pundits are thus of the view that courts of law need to utilize principled approaches, as opposed to the exercising of unfettered discretion that is based on individual notions of judges pertaining to what is fair or not (Halliwell, 2003:194). The presence of ‘unfettered discretion’ potentially has far reaching consequences, with regard to voluntary property dispositions. Thus, the presence of voluntary settlement can occur by way of

Blowback Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Blowback - Article Example However, the above policies changed after learning how harmful such policies could be to the entire world (Johnson pp.6-10). The U.S aimed to restore peace and prosperity after the cold war. Whereby, the U.S established certain bodies to restore peace and prosperity. This idea was embraced by almost entire world after learning how destructive war may turn the world economy (Johnson p.7). 5. Identify one of the pre-2001 blowback incidents Johnson mentions and explain how it relates to core themes of this class. Are there other examples that we have covered that may involve blowback, but are not mentioned in this reading? Some of the blowbacks that faced United States include; terrorist attacks among its innocent citizens. Whereby, the attacks were attributed to the previous imperial acts committed by the U.S to other nations. In addition, some economic policies that united state formulated with an aim of harming other economies turned to affect the U.S. For instance, the 1977 economic meltdown affected Thailand, Indonesia, Korea and other countries were reported to have been caused by America. Those crises were least anticipated (Johnson pp.6-10). Additionally, the drug menace was reported to be a major blowback that affected Americans citizens. The drug problem may was attributed to American acts that were previously committed by corrupt CIA military officers. In addition, the Bombing of American embassies in Nairobi Kenya and Dare salaam in 1988 July was another relevant example of Blowbacks (Johnson pp.10). Another, unmentioned blowback that has not been put forth involves China becoming a super power economy. For instance, China is one of the biggest markets for Americans because most of the items utilize in the United States are imported from China. This indicates that economic policies that were put forth by Americans to benefit them at the

German Public During WW2

German Public During WW2 To what extent were the German people supportive of Nazi anti-Semitic policy? Only a few years ago, a remarkable book exploded on to the academic scene which initiated a heated and sometimes acrimonious debate amongst historians. The Harvard historian Daniel Goldhagen had argued in his book Hitler’s willing executioners[1] that Germans were culturally predisposed to mistreat and kill Jews. This essay will look the extent to which Germans were supportive of Nazi anti-Semitic policy mainly through the lens of the Goldhagen debate. It will have to explore three interrelated but distinct conceptual questions. Firstly, it will have to determine the nature of the anti-Semitic policies themselves. Secondly, the essay needs to clarify what type of support was typical amongst Germans. Thirdly, the essay needs to ask how support was articulated and how reliable the various types of historical evidence is to reach so dramatic conclusions as Goldhagen did in his work. Goldhagen’s thesis can be summed up briefly by saying that he believes to have identified the single most important motivation of Germans to kill Jews. He writes: ‘[There was a] widespread profound German cultural animus towards Jews that evolved from an early nineteenth century eliminationist form to the more deadly twentieth century incarnation.’[2] While Germans throughout the past two centuries harboured this ‘eliminationist anit-Semitic attitude’ towards the Jewish people, ‘only with the control of Eastern Europe could Germans finally act upon Hitler’s pre-existing exterminationist intentions.’[3] Goldhagen attributes to Germans a general voluntarism and enthusiasm for cruelty in performing their assigned and self-appointed task of exterminating Jews.[4] Goldhagen maintains that all other ways of explaining German anti-Semitic behaviour during the various phases of discriminatory Nazi policy have failed for some reason. The only viable explanation must be, so Goldhagen argues, that Germans were somehow pre-disposed to kill Jews. His claims rests on an analysis of the actions of ordinary Germans, the Police Battalion 101 and their general willingness to execute the exterminationist orders of the Nazi leadership. He then claims that ‘all conventional explanations explicitly or implicitly p osit universal human traits’[5] so that explanations must hold true for everyone. Something Goldhagen insistently rejects. This, he exclaims, is ‘obviously and demonstrably false’[6]. He uses a two-pronged, methodologically questionable, strategy however. First, his thesis undergoes a daring generalisation when he claims that the actions of some Germans, those who willingly engage in mass murder, are indicative of the attitudes of all Germans (something that implicitly accepts by the way the Nazi assumption that assimilated German Jews are not Germans!). The second step is even more audacious methodologically. On some grounds he now claims that this attitudes is a trait specific only to Germans, no one else. He writes: ‘The one explanation adequate to these tasks holds that a demonological anti-Semitism, of the virulent racial variety, was the common structure of the perpetrators cognition, and of German society in general.’[7] In short, Germans killed Jews because they were Germans, and every German would be subscribing to the same eliminationist anti-Semitic attitude. If that is the case, the extent to which Germans were supportive of Nazi anti-Semitic ideology and policy is clear. All Germans potentially supported them, even or especially if this included the physical elimination of the Jewish people. They did so, not because they found Nazi ideology particularly persuasive, or were convinced that this is for the better good of German society, but simply because they were Germans. This identification of an ethnic group with a particular character trait of course is, strictly speaking, no explanation at all.[8] It is a conjecture that awaits evidence and elaboration. Goldhagen provides neither. His logic, as Josef Joffe writes, is simplistic and defies any reasonable historical method. ‘The killers were ordinary Germans, ergo the ordinary Germans were killers.’[9] Goldhagen’s book therefore lack the rigorous methodological standards of any decent historical work. Methodologically his work offers a circular thesis and is conspicuously devoid of argument and evidence. If such a simplistic approach fails to provide an answer to the question, we should look further. First, what was Nazi policy towards the Jews? Historians stress that Nazi policy greatly differed throughout the years of their twelve-year terror reign. Although Hitler had sketched the main outlines of his anti-Semitic attitude even before January 1933 and although Hitler and others were very sympathetic to the sporadic killings, beatings and other reprisals against Jews in German cities, they also feared this would diminish the widespread popular support that the Nazi government enjoyed in the first months after the appointment of Hitler as chancellor. What was needed was to reign in and organise properly the anti-Semitic actions, effectively basing them on a more legal basis and thereby giving them a faà §ade of legitimacy. Behind this problem stood the issue of competency of policy, and a constant state of confusion as to who was responsible for what in the many layers of the new regime. The fact however that Hitler and his inner circle deemed it necessary after coming to power to curtail the actions of the SA and place an ti-Semitic boycotts on a more legal basis indicates that, although many Germans agreed with Hitler’s assessment that Jews had a too prominent role in German economic and social life, they did not necessarily support haphazard, extralegal and sporadic anti-Semitic attacks on a daily basis. The Nazi leadership hence adjusted their policy and from now on favoured a slower approach to eliminating Jews from German public life. Graml notes that a process took place that may be termed the ‘disciplining the persecution of Jews’. He writes: ‘Disciplining the persecution of the Jews meant above all a move away from the terror of the stormtroopers to formal anti-Semitic legislation.’[10] Another significant difference in anti-Semitic policy is equally overlooked by Goldhagen but of great relevance to the question of why Germans supported Nazi policy. With the start of the war in 1939 and the occupation of Poland and other Eastern European countries is became clear that Nazi policy towards Jews distinguished sharply between assimilated German Jews and Sephardic Eastern European Jews. While the former were gradually frozen out of German public life, East European Jews suffered from exterminationist policies almost immediately after the start of the war. The goal of the Nazi leadership with respect to them was immediate and radical obliteration of any Jewish culture and life in this area, something that was eventually extended to the German Jewry as well but only as late as 1943. The difference of treatment is significant since it may indicate that Germans harboured different attitudes to their widely assimilated neighbours and Eastern European Jews. Eventual exterminat ion of German Jews may have been anticipated by the Nazi leadership fairly early on, but the regime lacked the popular support to introduce any radical measures to initiate this process. In fact, historians point out that the progrom of 1938 (Reichskristallnacht) was received with widespread horror and disapproval amongst the German population.[11] The government never engaged in similar boycotts and overt actions against German Jews until the beginning of the war. Graml writes: ‘[to implement] the anti-Semitic message into policy was not simple, other priorities existed, amongst others to solidify their [the Nazi’s] power base. The brutal and open anti-Semitic agitation practiced by the Nazi party failed to make any positive impression at all on the majority of the population.’[12] That does not mean that German Jews did not suffer a horrifying slow marginalisation in German society which culminated in the visible stigmatisation and discrimination of Jews in all parts of public life. Jews were rapidly becoming second class citizens and this process was visible and obvious to every German. It is this process of gradual marginalisation of Jews in German society that probably received most support from ordinary Germans, and which eventually led to a broader acceptance of their ‘final destination’: physical extermination. The broad catalogue of discriminatory measures against German Jews were in effect removing them from German society and ensured that the final step, their physical obliteration, was accepted as inevitable fate as they were increasingly associated with the guilt for war in Nazi propaganda.[13] To summarise, the differences in policy vis-à  -vis Jews in Germany and the occupied territories after the start of the war also elicited different responses by Germans and hence indicate different levels of support. Kulka notes that Germans probably viewed ‘racial legislation as a permanent solution of social, cultural and biological segregation but conditional upon the preservation of public law and order.’[14] Thus Germans distinguished between Eastern European and German Jews, although this differentiation grew less and less significant as the war progressed and as Nazi ideology managed to portray German Jews as similar to those of the Sephardic Jews. The second important issue concerns the constituency of supporters of Nazi ideologies and policy. Who were they? Did they all equally endorse anti-Semitic policies? Goldhagen claims that all ordinary Germans were in fact anti-Semites, and bases this claim on his account of the role of ordinary Germans in the mass killings that occurred in Eastern Europe. His conclusion is a swift and methodologically flawed one: ordinary Germans did the killing, so every ordinary German must potentially be a killer. In this logic, all ordinary Germans would be supportive of the most radically eliminationist policy. A closer look at the evidence reveals a different picture however. Goldhagen was not the first who looked at ‘ordinary Germans’ and emphasised their voluntary and at times sadistic attitude to mass murder. In fact not even the particular focus of his inquiry, the Police Battalions operating in the hinterland of the Eastern front were original. Christopher Browning already published a book on the unparalleled brutality of the Police Battalion 101 and attempts similarly to identify a plausible explanation for the behaviour of the policemen. Although Browning is equally perplexed by the cruelty and viciousness that the policemen displayed throughout the murderous procedures, he rejects any simplistic explanations but instead argues that a whole range of factors may are contributed to the callousness of the men. He stresses in stark contrast to Goldhagen, that at the root of every action lies an individual decision which must be accounted for in individual not generalist terms; an explanatory approach that deeply resonates with the opinion of other scholars.[15] Therefore, dealing with a whole group of murderers, explanations can only sketch some of the most significant factors which may have played a role in stripping the men of their humane and cultural inhibitions. Browning does not shy away from references to the wider German society, but the tone of his propositions is remarkably different to that of Goldhagen. Browning writes: ‘The men of the Reserve Police Battalion 101, like the rest of German society [sic], were immersed in a deluge of racist and anti-Semitic propaganda.’[16] However, he declines to extrapolate from his evidential base to German society as a whole. Instead he is sympathetic to a complex social explanation of their actions. ‘Insidiously, most of those who did not shoot only re-affirmed the ‘macho’ values of the majority according to which it was a positive quality to be ‘tough’ enough to kill unarmed, non-combatant men, women, and children – and tried not to rupture the bonds of comradeship that constituted their social world.’[17] According to Browning, the men were motivated by a raft of socio-psychological aspects not by simply being German. This should illustrate that talking about Germans as a collection of individuals who feature that same preternatural anti-Semitic disposition makes little sense. It fails to acknowledge the variance of opinion on Nazi ideology and policy as well as cannot explain why some become inhibited murderers and others do not. Their ethnic identity (being German) does not add up to be a plausible explanation of their allegedly eliminationist anti-Semitism since it cannot take account of the fact the Germans frequently intermarried with Jews since their emancipation in 1867. German had long ceased to be a homogenous ethnic group, tied together by ‘purity of blood lines’ as Nazi ideology suggested. Now let us proceed to the last issue, the forms in which Germans may have expressed their support for anti-Semitic policies. Again, a methodologically difficulty lies at the heart of this issue. How to distinguish between those who gave their tacit support and those who engaged in demonstrative actions of support? Which form was a more accurate reflection of endorsement for Nazi policies? Historians have pointed out that about half a million Germans were actively involved in the Final Solution, the physical extermination of Jews after 1943. This included administrative work as well as the actual killings. Important sections of the economy and government were directly involved in the killings by providing crucial assistance in terms of resources, material and time to the Holocaust.[18] Interestingly, we do not have to engage in a flight of fancy guess work but have some hard facts that may shed some light on the forms and extent of support for anti-Semitic policies amongst the German population. Nazis as well as the victorious armies conducted extensive surveys that were supposed to demonstrate the extent to which anti-Semitism messages were favourably received by the German population. Kulka sums up the evidence: ‘the post 1945 surveys†¦ give [us] a reliable indication of attitudes amongst Germans: twenty percent were supportive of Nazi policies towards Jews; nineteen percent were generally in favour [of anti-Semitic policies] but said that Hitler had gone too far. Overall the surveys found that identification with the Final Solution was quite widespread among the public in the Third Reich.’[19] The question however remains whether the silence on the Holocaust was due to indifference or reflected endorsement of physical elimination of Jews. Norbert Frei argues that the extent to which workers had been won over by Nazi policies may give us a reliable clue as to the amount of support. He argues that the Nazi slogan of Volksgemeinschaft (people’s community) somehow captures the essence of anti-Semitism and the gradual acceptance of this idea would in turn show how far Germans had consented to discriminatory measures against Jews. By the mid 1930s, Frei argues, the German workers had virtually be convinced the idea of people’s community was constitutive for German society, a concept that would preclude any participation of Jews in German public life.[20] This hints at those pockets of resistance to Nazi propaganda which many historians conventionally identify as conservative, catholic milieus and whose resilience to Nazi propaganda can only be explained by social and cultural factors, an explanation that Goldhagen explicitly rejects. Overall, to what extent were Germans really supportive of anti-Semitic policies? The question evokes a complex answer. Policy changed throughout the regime and hence the degree of support differed. Also, policies varied with regard to different ethnic groups of Jews throughout Europe, and so did the response and support of Germans for these policies. And finally, German people were not a unitary entity. Their responses to Nazi policy was influenced by their educational, cultural, religious and social background, by the different level of sympathy for the wider Nazi ideology, as well as by the way in which they were affected themselves by Nazi policies throughout the regime. Given this wide range of variances, no serious historian can offer only one universal portrait of German support for anti-Semitic measures. Bibliography Christopher R. Browning. Ordinary Men. Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Final Solution in Poland. New York: Harper Collins 1992. Norbert Frei. People’s Community and War: Hitler’s Popular Support. In Hans Mommsen (ed.). The Third Reich between Vision and Reality. New Perspectives on German History 1918-1945. Oxford New York: Berg 2001. Daniel Jonah Goldhagen. Hitler’s Willing Executioners. Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust. London: Abacus 1996. Hermann Graml. Anti-Semitism in the Third Reich. Oxford: Blackwell 1992. Josef Joffe. ‘The Killers were ordinary Germans, ergo the ordinary Germans were killers’: The Logic, the Language and the Meaning of a Book that conquered Germany. In Robert R. Shandley (ed.). Unwilling Germans? The Goldhagen Debate. London: University of Minnesota Press 1998. Otto Dov Kulka. The German Population and the Jews: State of Research and New Perspectives. In David Bankier (ed.). Probing the Depths of German Anti-Semitism. German Society and the Persecution of the Jews, 1933-1941. Jerusalem: Yad Vashem 2000. Hans Mommsen. From Weimar to Auschwitz. Essays in German History. Cambridge: Polity 1991. P.G.J. Pulzer. The Rise of Political Anti-Semitism in Germany and Austria. New York e.a.: Wiley 1964. Roger W. Smith. ‘Ordinary Germans’, the Holocaust, and Responsibility: Hitler’s Willing Executioners in Moral Perspective. In Franklyn H. Littell (ed.). Hyping the Holocaust. Scholars answer Goldhagen. Merion Station 1997. 1 Footnotes [1] Daniel Jonah Goldhagen. Hitler’s Willing Executioners. Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust. London: Abacus 1996. [2] Goldhagen, Willing Executioners, p.375. [3] Goldhagen, Willing Executioners, p.375. [4] Goldhagen, Willing Executioners, p.375. [5] Goldhagen, Willing Executioners, p.389. [6] Goldhagen, Willing Executioners, p.389. [7] Goldhagen, Willing Executioners, p.392. [8] Cf. Roger W. Smith. ‘Ordinary Germans’, the Holocaust, and Responsibility: Hitler’s Willing Executioners in Moral Perspective. In Franklyn H. Littell (ed.). Hyping the Holocaust. Scholars answer Goldhagen. Merion Station 1997, p.48-49. [9] Josef Joffe. ‘The Killers were ordinary Germans, ergo the ordinary Germans were killers’: The Logic, the Language and the Meaning of a Book that conquered Germany. In Robert R. Shandley (ed.). Unwilling Germans? The Goldhagen Debate. London: University of Minnesota Press 1998, p.217. [10] Hermann Graml. Anti-Semitism in the Third Reich. Oxford: Blackwell 1992, p.96. [11] Hans Mommsen. From Weimar to Auschwitz. Essays in German History. Cambridge: Polity 1991, p.241. [12] Graml, Anti-Semitism, p.89. [13] Otto Dov Kulka. The German Population and the Jews: State of Research and New Perspectives. In David Bankier (ed.). Probing the Depths of German Anti-Semitism. German Society and the Persecution of the Jews, 1933-1941. Jerusalem: Yad Vashem 2000, p.274. [14] Kulka, Population, p.273. [15] Cf. P.G.J. Pulzer. The Rise of Political Anti-Semitism in Germany and Austria. New York e.a.: Wiley 1964, p.31. [16] Christopher R. Browning. Ordinary Men. Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Final Solution in Poland. New York: Harper Collins 1992, p.184 [17] Browning, Ordinary Men, p.185. [18] Mommsen, Weimar, p.225. [19] Kulka, Population, p.279f. [20] Norbert Frei. People’s Community and War: Hitler’s Popular Support. In Hans Mommsen (ed.). The Third Reich between Vision and Reality. New Perspectives on German History 1918-1945. Oxford New York: Berg 2001, p.63.

The Scarlet Ibis :: essays research papers

James Hurst's short story, "The Scarlet Ibis" reveals that the brotherly bond between the narrator and Doodle is an essential component in the story. If Doodle was a girl, the brotherly connection and bond would be lost, resulting in many variations throughout the story. If Doodle was a girl the narrator probably wouldn't spend as much time with Doodle. A brother-brother relationship is very different than a brother-sister relationship. Doodle would likely be closer to another female such as her mother. Young girls tend to spend more time indoors with their mothers learning to sew, playing with dolls and other girl things. Its not that a brother-sister relationship is non-existent, but its a lot different. With Doodle spending more time inside, "she" wouldn't ever experience summers down by the swamp learning to run, box and climb trees. All of those things are things that little boys do. Brothers spend more time outside running, wrestling and playing sports. They enjoy doing things that take physical skill. Even if Doodle went outside, she probably wouldn't be interested in running through the forest and climbing trees. Chances are that she would be more into picking wildflowers and feeding the squirrels. There are rare occasions where you will find a real special brother-sister relationship, especially at the age Doodle and his brother were at. Younger children often play with other kids of the same gender and thinks the opposite sex has "kuddies." The two children would be at a vulnerable age to risk a close relationship. Close brother and sister relationships don't usually evolve until the mid teenage years. For example I have two older sisters that I am very close with now, but when I was young I didn't want anything to with them. So I began to develop a close relationship with my dad at a young age. That is why I believe that if Doodle was a girl, she would have been connected closer with her mother because of the gender relation. Not as much is expected physically from a girl, therefore I believe Doodle would be handicapped the rest of "her" life.

Classification of Modern Germanic Languages and their Distribution Essay

Classification of languages means their placement into families or phyla [‘failÉ™] on the basis of lexical or typological similarity or shared ancestry. Languages may thus be classified either genetically or typologically. A genetic classification assumes that certain languages are related in that they have evolved from a common ancestral language. This form of classification employs ancient records as well as hypothetical reconstructions of the earlier forms of languages, called protolanguages. Typological classification is based on similarities in language structure. As for the English language, genetically (historically) it belongs to the Germanic or Teutonic group of languages of the Indo-European linguistic family. Old Germanic languages comprised 3 groups: East Germanic, North Germanic and West Germanic. East Germanic languages no longer exist, as they are dead. Only one language belonging to this group is known, Gothic, as a written document came down to us in this la nguage. It is a translation of the Bible made in the 4th century A.D. by the Gothic Bishop Ulfilas from the Greek language. Modern Germanic languages embrace 2 groups: North Germanic and West Germanic as they have survived until today. The table below illustrates their division and distribution. Researchers are not unanimous in their estimation of the number of Germanic languages and their distinction. Until recently Dutch and Flemish were named as separate languages, now there is a common term for them – the Netherlandic (Netherlandish) (Note 7) language as spoken in The Netherlands, together with the same language in northern Belgium, which is popularly called Flemish. In the European Middle Ages, the language was called Dietsc, or Duutsc, historically equivalent to German Deutsch and meaning simply â€Å"language of the people,† as contrasted with Latin, which was the language of religion and learning. The form Duutsc was borrowed into English and gives modern â€Å"Dutch.† The official name of the language is Nederlands, or Netherlandic. In the Netherlands it is also called Hollands (Hollandish), reflecting the fact that the standard language is based largely on the dialect of the old province of Holland (now North Holland and South  Holland). Frisian and Faroese are regarded as dialects since they are spoken over small politically dependent areas (Note 8); British English and American English are sometimes thought to be 2 independent languages. By one estimate, the number of people speaking Germanic languages amounts to 440 million (T.A. Rastorguyeva) plus an indefinite number of bilingual nations with English spoken as one of the official languages. Old Germanic Languages and their Classification The history of the Germanic group begins with the appearance of what is known  as the Proto-Germanic (PG) language also termed Common or Primitive Germanic, Primitive Teutonic or simple Germanic. PG is the linguistic ancestor or the parent-language of the Germanic group. It is believed to have split from the IE related tongues sometime between the 15th and 10th c.c.BC. The ancient Germans or Teutons are supposed to have settled on the southern coast of the Baltic Sea in the region of the Elbe. This place is regarded as the most probable original home of the Teutons. PG is an entirely pre-historical language: it was never recorded in written form. In the 19th century it was reconstructed by methods of comparative linguistics from written evidence in descendant languages. It is believed that at the earliest stages of history, PG was one language, though dialectally coloured. In its later stages dialectal differences grew, so that towards the beginning of our era Germanic appears divi ded into dialectal groups and tribal dialects. Dialectal differentiation increased with migrations and geographical expansion of the Teutons caused by over population, poor agricultural technique and scanty natural resources in the areas of their original settlement. Earliest records of Germanic tribes The records of ancient Germanic tribes are based on testimonies by Greek and Roman travellers and geographers. The earliest of them refers to the IV c. B.C. made by Phytheas, a Greek astronomer and geographer who sailed from Gaul (France) to the mouth of the river Elbe. He described the tribes of the Teutons. The next major description of the Teutons came from Julius Caesar, the Roman general and statesman which he left in his book ‘Commentaries on the War in Gaul’ (1 c. BC.) A century later (1 c. A.D.) Pliny the Elder, a Roman naturalist, gave a classification of the Germanic which until quite recently had basically been accepted by modern researchers. According to it, the tribes in 1st c.A.D. comprised 5 major groups which fell into 3 subgroups: Eastern Germanic, Western Germanic and Northern Germanic. They were 1) the Vindili 2) the Ingaevones 3) The Istsaevones 4)the Hermiones 5) the Hilleveones. Table 2 illustrates this division. A few decades later the Roman historian Tacitus compiled a detailed description of the life and customs of the ancient Teutons where he reproduced Pliny’s classification of  the Germanic tribes. Having made a linguistic analysis of several Germanic dialects of later ages, F. Engels came to the conclusion that Pliny’s classification of the Teutonic tribes accurately reflected the contemporary dialectal division. The traditional tri-partite classification of the Germanic languages was reconsidered and corrected in some recent publications (Rastorgueyva). It appears that the development of the Germanic group was not confined to successive splits; it involved both linguistic divergence and convergence. It has also been discovered that originally PG split into two main branches and that the tri-partite division marks a later stage of its history. The earliest migration of the Germanic tribes from the lower valley of the Elbe consisted in their movement north, to the Scandinavian peninsula, a few hundred years before our era. This geographical segregation must have led to linguistic differentiation and to the division of PG into the northern and southern branches. At the beginning of our era, some of the tribes returned to the mainland and settled closer to the Vistula basin, east of the other continental Germanic tribes. It is only from this stage of their history that the Germanic languages can be described under three headings: East Germanic, North Germanic and West Germanic. Table 2 Classification of Ancient Germanic Tribes Record Languages Tribes Settlement 4th c. B.C. – Pytheas, Greek astronomer and geographer 1st c. B.C. – Julius Caesar< Roman general and statesman 1st c. A.D. – Pliny the Elder, Roman naturalist: classification of the Germanic tribes: East Germanic The Vindili (including the Goths and the Burgundians) Eastern part of Germanic territory Western Germanic The Ingaevones North-western part of Germanic territory, the shores of the Northern Sea, modern Netherlands The Istsaevones The western part of the Germanic territory, on the Rhine (the Franks) The Hermiones Southern part of the Germanic territory (southern Germany) Northern Germanic The Hilleveones Scandinavia – 2nd c. A.D. Cornelius Tacitus, Roman historian Characterized the social structure of the old Germanic tribes Material Culture According to Julius Caesar, the Germans were pastoralists, and the bulk of their foodstuffs—milk, cheese, and meat—came from their flocks and herds. Some farming was also carried out, the main crops being grain, root crops, and vegetables. Both the cattle and the horses of the Germans were of poor quality by Roman standards. The Iron Age had begun in Germany about four centuries before the days of Caesar, but even in his time metal appears to have been a luxury material for domestic utensils, most of which were made of wood, leather, or clay. Of the larger metal objects used by them,  most were still made of bronze, though this was not the case with weapons. Pottery was for the most part still made by hand, and pots turned on the wheel were relatively rare. The degree to which trade was developed in early Germany is obscure. There was certainly a slave trade, and many slaves were sold to the Romans. Such potters as used the wheel—and these were very few—and smiths and miners no doubt sold their products. But in general the average Germanic village is unlikely to have used many objects that had not been made at home. Foreign merchants dealing in Italian as well as Celtic wares were active in Germany in Caesar’s time and supplied prosperous warriors with such goods as wine and bronze vessels. But from the reign of Augustus onward, there was a huge increase in German imports from the Roman Empire. The German leaders were now able to buy whole categories of goods—glass vessels, red tableware, Roman weapons, brooches, statuettes, ornaments of various kinds, and other objects—that had not reached them before. These Roman products brought their owners much prestige, but how the Germans paid for them is not fully known. Warfare In the period of the early Roman Empire, German weapons, both offensive and defensive, were characterized by shortage of metal. Their chief weapon was a long lance, and few carried swords. Helmets and breastplates were almost unknown. A light wooden or wicker shield, sometimes fitted with an iron rim and sometimes strengthened with leather, was the only defensive weapon. This lack of adequate equipment explains the swift, fierce rush with which the Germans would charge the ranks of the heavily armed Romans. If they became entangled in a prolonged, hand-to-hand grapple, where their light shields and thrusting spears were confronted with Roman swords and armour, they had little hope of success. Even by the 6th century, few of the Germanic peoples had adequate military equipment. Form of Government No trace of autocracy can be found among the Germans whom Caesar describes. The leading men of the pagi (kindred groups) would try to patch up disputes  as they arose, but they acted only in those disputes that broke out between members of their own pagus. There appears to have been no mediatory body at this date. In fact, in peacetime there appears to have been no central authority that could issue orders to, or exercise influence over, all the pagi of which any one people was composed. In wartime, according to Caesar, a number of confederate chieftains were elected, but they were joint leaders and held office only in time of war. By Tacitus’ time a new type of military chieftainship had come into being. For this office only the members of a recognized â€Å"royal clan,† such as is known to have existed among the 1st-century Cherusci and Batavians, the 6th-century Heruli, and others, were eligible. Any member of this royal clan was eligible for election, and the chie ftainship was in no way hereditary. A chief of this type held office for life and had religious as well as military duties. He could be overruled by the council of the leading men, and his proposals to the general assembly of the warriors might be rejected by them. The degree of his influence depended largely on his own personal qualities. A rudimentary judicial apparatus had come into existence among the Germanic peoples by Tacitus’ time. The general assembly elected a number of the leading men to act as judges, and these judges traveled through the villages to hear private suits. Each of them was accompanied by 100 attendants to lend authority to his decisions. A person who was found guilty by these judges had to pay a number of horses or cattle proportionate to the gravity of his offense. But many disputes (e.g., those arising from homicide, wounding, or theft) continued to be settled by the kindreds themselves, and the blood feuds to which they gave rise might continue from generation to generation. Long after the conversion to Christianity the German rulers found it difficult to stamp out the blood feud. .The monarchy did not become fully established in the Germanic world until German peoples had settled as federates inside the Roman Empire, and the leaders of the Ostrogoths in Italy, the Visigoths in Gaul and Spain, the Vandals in Africa, and so on are the first Germanic kings. Other famous German chieftains in this period, such as Athanaric and Alaric, who either lived outside the Roman frontier or whose peoples were not federates settled in the provinces under a treaty (foedus) to defend the frontier, seem to have had little more personal authority than the leaders described by Tacitus. Conversion to Christianity Evidence suggests that before the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476, none of the great Germanic peoples was converted to Christianity while still living outside the Roman frontier, but that all the Germanic peoples who moved into the Roman provinces before that date were converted to Christianity within a generation. The Vandals seem to have been converted when in Spain in 409–429, the Burgundians when in eastern Gaul in 412–436, and the Ostrogoths when in the province of Pannonia about 456–472. In all these cases the Germans embraced the Arian form of Christianity (Note 9); none of the major Germanic peoples became officially Catholic until the conversion of the Franks under Clovis (496) and of the Burgundians under Sigismund. The reason for their adoption of Arianism rather than Catholicism is very obscure. The last Germanic people on the European continent to be converted to Christianity were the Old Saxons (second half of the 8th century), while the Sca ndinavian peoples were converted in the 10th century. England had been converted in the 7th century. Germanic Alphabets and Old Germanic Writings Germanic tribes used 3 different alphabets for their writings which partly succeeded each other in time. The earliest of these was the Runic alphabet (Note 10) each separate letter being called a rune. The word rune originally meant ‘secret’, ‘mystery’ and hence came to denote inscriptions believed to be magic. According to scholars, this alphabet was derived either from Latin or from some other Italic alphabet, close to Latin, in the 2nd c. A.D. somewhere on the Rhine or the Danube where the Germanic tribes came into contact with Roman culture. This alphabet was used by such tribes as the Goths, Anglo-Saxons and Scandinavians. The runes were used as letters, each symbol indicating a separate sound. Besides, a rune could also represent a word beginning with that sound and was called by that word. For example, the rune denoted the sound [ÃŽ ¸], [à °] was called ‘thorn’ and could stand for OE Þorn(NE thorn). The letters of the runic alphabet are angular, straight lines are preferred, curved lines are avoided. This is due to the fact that  runic inscriptions were cut in hard material: stone, bone or wood. The shapes of some letters resemble those of Greek and Latin; others have not been traced to any known alphabet. The number of runes in different OG languages varied from 28 to 33 runes in Britain against 16 or 24 on the continent. That is the number of runes in England was larger: new runes were added as new sounds appeared in English. Neither on the mainland nor in Britain were the runes ever used for everyday writing or for putting down poetry and prose works. Their main function was to make short inscriptions on objects, often to bestow on them some special power or magic. The two best known runic inscriptions in England are the earliest extant OE written records. One of them is an inscription on a box called the ‘Franks Casket, the other is a short text on a stone cross known as the Ruthwell Cross. The Franks Casket was discovered in the early years of the 19th c. In France, and was presented to the British Museum by a British archeologist A.W. Frank. The Casket is a small box of whale bone; its four sides are carved: there are pictures in the centre and runic inscription around. The longest of them, in alliterative verse, tells the story of the whale bone, of which the Casket is made. The Ruthwell Cross is a 15ft tall cross inscribed and ornamented on all sides. The principal inscription has been reconstructed into a passage from an OE religious poem† The Dream of the Rood†, in which Christ’s Passion is told from the point of view of the Cross on which he was crucified. The Cross speaks: Ic wà ¦s miÞ blodi bistemid (Old English translation) (I was with blood bedewed). Many runic inscriptions were preserved on weapons, coins, amulets, tombstones, rings, various cross fragments. Some runic insertions occur in OE manuscripts written in Latin characters. The total number of runic inscriptions in OE is about 40; the last of them belong to the end of the OE period. Next came Ulfiala’s Gothic alphabet used in his translation of the Bible. It’s a peculiar alphabet based on the Greek alphabet with some admixture of Latin and Runic letters. (The Gothic alphabet should not be confused with the so-called Gothic script which is used in German writings and is a modified version of Latin script). The latest alphabet to be used by the Germanic tribes is the Latin alphabet. It superceded both the Runic and the Gothic alphabets when a new technique of writing was introduced, namely that of spreading some colour or paint on a surface instead of cutting or engraving the letters. The material used for  writing was either parchment or papyrus. Introduction of the Latin alphabet accompanied the spread of Christianity and Christian religious texts written in Latin. Since the Latin alphabet was adequate to represent all the sounds of Germanic languages, it was adapted to the peculiar needs of the separate languages. For example, to denote the dental fricative [ÃŽ ¸], [à °] the runic Þ was used (derived from Latin D). Ulfilas’s Bible, otherwise called the Silver Code (Codex Argenteus) is kept in Sweden. Along with other OG writings, next comes the Old High German Song of Hilderbrandt, a fragment of an epic, 8th century, and the Beowulf, an OE epic, probably written in the 8th c. Then come Old Icelandic epic texts collected in the so-called Older Edda comprising songs written down in the 13 c. A most important role in the history of the English language was played by the introduction of Christianity. The first attempt to introduce the Roman Christian religion was made in the 6th century during the supremacy of Kent. In 597 a group of missionaries from Rome dispatched by Pope Gregory the Great landed on the shore of Kent. They made Canterbury their centre and from there the new faith expanded to Kent, East Anglia, Essex, and other places. The movement was supported from the north; missionaries from Ireland brought the Celtic variety of Christianity to Northumbria. In less than a century practically all England became Christianized. The introduction of Christianity gave a strong impetus to the growth of learning and culture. Monasteries were founded all over the country, with monastic schools attached. Religious service and teaching were conducted in Latin. A high standard of learning was reached in the best English monasteries, especially in Northumbria as early as the 8th and 9th centuries. During the Scandinavian invasions the Northumbrian culture was largely wiped out and English culture shifted to the southern kingdoms, most of all to Wessex, during the reign of Alfred the Great. From that time till the end of the OE period, Wessex with its capital at Winchester remained the cultural centre of England. OE scribes used two kinds of alphabet: runic and Latin. The bulk of the OE records is written in Latin characters but the scribes made certain modifications and additions to indicate OE sounds. Like any alphabetic writing, OE writing was based on a phonetic principle: every letter indicated a separate sound. This principle, however, was not always observed, even at the earliest stages of phonetic spelling. Some OE letters indicated two or more sounds; some letters stood  for positional variants of phonemes: a and à ¦. Fricatives stood for 2 sounds each: a voiced and a voiceless consonant. The letters could indicate short and long sounds. The length of the vowels is shown by a macron or by a line above the letter; long consonants are indicated by a double letter. Linguistic Features of Germanic Languages Phonetic peculiarities of Germanic Languages. Word Stress and its role in further development of Germanic languages In ancient IE, prior to the separation of Germanic, there existed two ways of word accentuation: musical pitch and force stress (otherwise called dynamic, expiratory or breath stress). The position of the stress was movable and free, which means that it could fall on any syllable of the word – a root morpheme, an affix or an ending – and could be shifted both in form building and word-building. (cf. Russian: Ð ´Ã ¾Ã ¼Ã ¾Ã ¼, Ð ´Ã ¾Ã ¼Ã °, Ð ´Ã ¾Ã ¼Ã °, etc.). But these properties of the word accent were changed in PG. Force or expiratory stress became the only type of stress used. The stress was now fixed on the first syllable, which was usually the root of the word and sometimes the prefix; the other syllables – suffixes and endings – were unstressed. The stress could no longer move either in form-building or in word-building. This phenomenon has played an important role in the development of the Germanic languages, and especially in phonetic and morphological changes. Due to the difference in the force of articulation, the stressed and unstressed syllables underwent different changes: accented syllables were pronounced with great distinctness and precision, while unaccented became less distinct and were phonetically weakened. The differences between the sounds in stressed position were preserved and emphasised, whereas the contrasts between the unaccented sounds were weakened and lost. Since the stress was fixed on the root, the weakening and loss of sounds mainly affected the suffixes and grammatical endings. Many ending merged with the suffixes, were weakened and dropped. E.g. (the reconstructed word )PG *fiskaz Goth fisks Oicel fiscr OE fisc The First or Proto-Germanic Consonant Shift (Grimm’s Law) Comparison with other languages within the IE family reveals regular correspondences between Germanic and non-Germanic consonants. It looks as if the Germanic consonants ‘shifted’ as compared with their non-Germanic counterparts. This phenomenon was first observed and later formulated in terms of phonetic law (1822) by (Rasmus Rask and Jacob Grimm. Hence its name- Grimm’s Law. By Grimm’s Law, which includes 3 acts, voiceless plosives (stops) developed in PG into voiceless fricatives (1 act); voiced aspirated plosives were shifted to pure voiced plosives or voiced fricatives; and voiced plosives changed into voiceless plosives (stops). The Danish scholar Karl Verner was the first to explain them as the result of further development of Germanic languages. According to Verner, all the early PG voiceless fricatives [f, ÃŽ ¸, h] which arose under Grimm’s Law, became voiced between vowels if the preceding vowel was unstressed; otherwise they remained voiceless. The voicing of fricatives occurred in early PG at the time when the stress was not yet fixed on the root-morpheme. [f – v- b] seofon [ÃŽ ¸ – à ° – d] O Icel. hundraà ° – hundert [h – g] Goth. swaihro –OE sweger [s – z – r] Lat. auris – Goth. auso – Icel. eyra (ear) The change of [z] into [r] is called rhotacism. As a result of voicing, there arose an interchange of consonants in the grammatical forms of the word, termed grammatical interchange. Part of the  forms retained a voiceless fricative, while other forms acquired a voiced fricative. For example, heffen (Inf.) – huob Past sg.) heave; ceosan (choose) curon (Past pl.). Some modern English words retained traces of Verner’s Law: death – dead; was- were, raise – rear. Throughout history, PG vowels displayed a strong tendency to change. The changes were of the following kinds: qualitative and quantitative, dependent and independent. Qualitative changes affect the quality of the sound, for example [o – a] or [p – f]; quantitative changes are those which make long sounds short or short sounds long. For example,[ i – i:]; dependent changes are restricted to certain positions when a sound may change under the influence of the neighbouring sounds or in a certain type of a syllable; independent changes or regular (spontaneous) take place irrespective of phonetic conditions, that is they may affect a certain sound in all positions. In accented syllables the oppositions between vowels were carefully maintained and the number of stressed vowels grew. In unaccented positions the original contrasts between vowels were weakened or lost; the distinction of short and long vowels in unstressed syllables had been shortened. As for originally short vowels, they tended to be reduced to a neutral sound, losing their qualitative distinctions and were often dropped in unstressed final syllables (fiskaz). Strict differentiation of long and short vowels is regarded as an important characteristic of the Germanic group. Long vowels tended to become closer and to diphthongize, short vowels often changed into more open vowels. IE short [o] changed in Germanic into more open vowel [a] and thus ceased to be distinguished from the original IE [a]; in other words in PG they merged into [o]. IE long [a:] was narrowed to [o:] and merged with [o:]. For example, Lat. nox Goth. nahts; Lat. mater OE modor; Sans. bhra:ta OE bro:à °or .

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